A Comparative Study of Postpartum Depression and Psychological Hardiness Between First-Time and Multiparous Mothers
Downloads
Objective: This study aims to compare postpartum depression and psychological hardiness between first-time (primiparous) and multiparous mothers to identify differences that could inform targeted interventions.
Methods and Materials: A causal-comparative research design was used. The study population included all pregnant women attending hospitals in Rasht, Iran, in 2024. A total of 70 participants (35 primiparous, 35 multiparous) were randomly selected. Data were collected using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Kobasa Psychological Hardiness Scale. Statistical analyses, including multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), were performed using SPSS version 26.
Findings: There was a significant difference in PPD and psychological hardiness between the two groups (P<0.01). Primiparous mothers had significantly higher postpartum depression scores than multiparous mothers (M 24.86 vs. M = 17.91, P<0.01). Conversely, multiparous mothers exhibited higher psychological hardiness scores (M = 104.69 vs. M = 62.14, P < 0.01). Effect size calculations indicated a strong relationship between parity and both variables.
Conclusion: Primiparous mothers are at a higher risk of postpartum depression and have lower psychological hardiness than multiparous mothers. These findings highlight the need for targeted psychological interventions and support programs, particularly for first-time mothers. Future research should investigate additional psychosocial factors that influence these relationships.
Downloads
Bartone, P. T., Kelly, D. R., & Matthews, M. D. (2016). Psychological hardiness predicts adaptation to stress in military leaders: A longitudinal study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 39(4), 645–654.
Beck, C. T., Records, K., & Rice, M. (2018). Further development of the Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory-Revised. Advances in Neonatal Care, 18(2), 81–90. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0884217515344282
Bener, A., Burgut, F. T., Ghuloum, S., & Sheikh, J. (2019). A study of postpartum depression in a fast-developing country: Prevalence and related factors. International journal of women's health, 11, 111–118. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23094465/
Bjertrup, A. J. (2024). Prenatal Affective Cognitive Training to Reduce the Risk of Postpartum Depression (PACT): Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. Trials, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-024-08316-1
Cameron, E. E., Sedov, I. D., & Tomfohr-Madsen, L. M. (2020). Prevalence of paternal depression in pregnancy and the postpartum: An updated meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 265, 287–295. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27475890/
Delahaij, R., Gaillard, A. W., & Soeters, J. (2019). Hardiness and mental health: A review of studies on resilience. Journal of Military Psychology, 31(2), 77-90.
Dennis, C. L., & Dowswell, T. (2019). Psychosocial and psychological interventions for preventing postpartum depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10, CD001134. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013460
Febriani, R., Misrawati, M., & Deli, H. (2024). Relationship Between the Risk of Postpartum Depression and Maternal and Infant Attachment Bonding. JETISH: Journal of Education Technology Information Social Sciences and Health, 3(1), 284-291. https://doi.org/10.57235/jetish.v3i1.1662
Howard, L. M., Ryan, E. G., Trevillion, K., Anderson, F., Bick, D., Bye, A., & Stewart, D. E. (2018). Accuracy of the Whooley questions and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in identifying depression and other mental disorders in early pregnancy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 212(1), 50–56. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2017.9
Ingram, R. E., & Luxton, D. D. (2005). Vulnerability-stress models. In B. L. Hankin & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability-stress perspective (pp. 32–46). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231655.n2
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.nl/books/about/Stress_Appraisal_and_Coping.html?id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&redir_esc=y
Li, S. H., Graham, B. M., & Granger, C. (2021). The impact of parity on postpartum depression: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Women's Health, 13, 91–102.
Malik, S., Srivastava, P., & Manglani, A. (2025). Character Strength and Psychological Hardiness: Role in Prediction of Psychological Well-Being Among Youth. Journal of Neonatal Surgery, 14(4S), 330-336. https://doi.org/10.52783/jns.v14.1798
Nemati, S., Shojaeian, N., Bardel, M., Deetjen-Ruiz, R., Khani, Z., & McHugh, L. (2024). Exploring the Variables of the Psychological Well-Being of Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Through Self-Compassion and Psychological Hardiness. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(10), 3739–3744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06077-5
Netsi, E., Pearson, R. M., Murray, L., Cooper, P., Craske, M. G., & Stein, A. (2018). Association of persistent and severe postnatal depression with child outcomes. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(3), 247-253. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4363
Shirazi, M., Yazdani, N., & Hosseini, M. (2022). Cultural perspectives on maternal mental health: A study of postpartum depression in Iranian women. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(5), 714–730.
Wainwright, S. (2023). Screening Fathers for Postpartum Depression in a Maternal-Child Health Clinic: A Program Evaluation in a Midwest Urban Academic Medical Center. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05966-y
Williams, H. A., Brown, P., & Smith, J. (2019). Psychological hardiness and stress management in first-time mothers: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 75(4), 545–558.
Yang, J., Lin, X.-Z., Guo, Q.-W., Wang, C.-L., Yang, R.-Y., Zhang, J.-W., & Zeng, Y. (2023). Mediating effect of mindfulness level on the relationship between marital quality and postpartum depression among primiparas. World Journal of Clinical Cases, 11(12), 2729. http://dx.doi.org/10.12998/wjcc.v11.i12.2729
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Body, Mind and Culture

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.