Psychometric Evaluation of the Persian Striving to Avoid Inferiority Scale in University Students
Downloads
Objective: The present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Striving to Avoid Inferiority Scale (SAIS) among university students.
Methods and Materials: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 319 students (190 females, 129 males; M = 23.8, SD = 2.7) at Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences during the 2023–2024 academic year. A convenience sampling method was used. Participants completed the SAIS, the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI), and the Eysenck Self-Esteem Scale (ESES). Data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), convergent and discriminant validity tests, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Research data were analyzed using SPSS version 25 and AMOS version 24 software.
Findings: CFA supported the original two-factor structure (insecure striving and secure non-striving) with good model fit (χ²/df = 1.22, CFI = .99, GFI = .90, RMSEA = .02 [90% CI = .015–.035]). Cronbach’s α coefficients indicated high internal consistency (α = .93 for Insecure Striving, α = .86 for Secure Non-Striving, and α = .89 for the total score). Test–retest correlations ranged from .82 to .88. The SAIS correlated positively with pathological narcissism (r = .38–.70) and negatively with self-esteem (r = –.29–.45), supporting its convergent and discriminant validity.
Conclusion: The Persian SAIS demonstrated strong factorial validity, reliability, and construct validity among university students. However, findings should be interpreted in light of the convenience student sample, and further validation across more diverse or clinical populations is recommended.
Downloads
Anthoine, E., Moret, L., Regnault, A., Sébille, V., & Hardouin, J.-B. (2014). Sample size used to validate a scale: a review of publications on newly-developed patient reported outcomes measures. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 12, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-014-0176-2
Campbell, W. K., & Miller, J. D. (2011). The handbook of narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder. Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118093108
Duarte, C., Stubbs, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Matos, M., Gale, C., Morris, L., & Gilbert, P. (2017). The impact of self-criticism and self-reassurance on weight-related affect and well-being in participants of a commercial weight management programme. Obesity facts, 10(2), 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1159/000454834
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (junior & adult). Hodder and Stoughton Educational. https://doi.org/10.1037/t05462-000
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1976). Psychoticism as a dimension of personality. (No Title). https://lccn.loc.gov/77363821
Ferreira, C., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Duarte, C. (2011). The need to strive to avoid inferiority: validation studies of the Portuguese version of the SAIS. Psychologica, 54(54), 5-34. https://doi.org/10.14195/1647-8606_54_1
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Gilbert, P. (2016). Human nature and suffering. Routledge.
Gilbert, P., Broomhead, C., Irons, C., McEwan, K., Bellew, R., Mills, A., Gale, C., & Knibb, R. (2007). Development of a striving to avoid inferiority scale. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46(3), 633-648. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466606X157789
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Bellew, R., Mills, A., & Gale, C. (2009). The dark side of competition: How competitive behaviour and striving to avoid inferiority are linked to depression, anxiety, stress and self‐harm. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 82(2), 123-136. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608308X379806]
Hair Jr, J. F., Lds Gabriel, M., da Silva, D., & Braga Junior, S. (2019). Development and validation of attitudes measurement scales: fundamental and practical aspects. RAUSP Management Journal, 54(4), 490-507.
Haugan, T. (2023). Social anxiety in modern societies from an evolutionary perspective. Discover Psychology, 3(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-023-00074-6
Hormozi Nezhad, M., M Shehni Yeylagh, M., & Najarian, B. (2000). The Relationship between Self-Esteem, Social Anxiety, Perfectionism and Assertiveness of Shahid Chamran University Undergraduate Students. Psychological Achievements, 7(2), 29-50. https://doi.org/10.22055/psy.2000.16455
Jamiyl, F., Riza, Y., & Rezi, M. (2025). The Superiority of the Main Character in Wanasītu Annī Imra’ah: A Study of Alfred Adler’s Personality Psychology. Ukazh: Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa Bahasa dan Sastra Arab, 1(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.37108/ukazh.v1i1.1904
Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications. https://books.google.com/books?id=t2CvEAAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&ots=sWXDV4e0cQ&dq=Kline%2C%20R.%20B.%20(2023).%20Principles%20and%20practice%20of%20structural%20equation%20modeling.%20Guilford%20publications.%20&lr&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Kline,%20R.%20B.%20(2023).%20Principles%20and%20practice%20of%20structural%20equation%20modeling.%20Guilford%20publications.&f=false
Merino, M., Tornero-Aguilera, J. F., Rubio-Zarapuz, A., Villanueva-Tobaldo, C. V., Martín-Rodríguez, A., & Clemente-Suárez, V. J. (2024). Body perceptions and psychological well-being: a review of the impact of social media and physical measurements on self-esteem and mental health with a focus on body image satisfaction and its relationship with cultural and gender factors. Healthcare, https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141396
Nagae, A., Asano, K., & Kotera, Y. (2022). Moderating effects of striving to avoid inferiority on income and mental health. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 838991. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.838991
Ozimek, P., Brandenberg, G., Rohmann, E., & Bierhoff, H.-W. (2023). The impact of social comparisons more related to ability vs. more related to opinion on well-being: An Instagram study. Behavioral Sciences, 13(10), 850. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13100850
Pincus, A. L., Ansell, E. B., Pimentel, C. A., Cain, N. M., Wright, A. G., & Levy, K. N. (2009). Initial construction and validation of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Psychological assessment, 21(3), 365. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016530
Reis, S., Huxley, E., Eng Yong Feng, B., & Grenyer, B. F. (2021). Pathological narcissism and emotional responses to rejection: The impact of adult attachment. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 679168. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.679168
Şen-Pakyürek, G., & Barışkın, E. (2022). Narcissism on interpersonal circumplex model: Reactions to imaginary abandonment and rejection. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 987038. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987038
Soleimani, M., Past, N., Mowlaie, M., Mohammadi, A., Dashtipoor, M., Safa, Y., & Pincus, A. L. (2015). Psychometric properties of the pathological narcissism inventory. Contemporary Psychology, 10(1), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.22055/psy.2000.16455
To, P.-Y.-L., Lo, B.-C.-Y., Ng, T.-K., Wong, B.-P.-H., & Choi, A.-W.-M. (2021). Striving to avoid inferiority and procrastination among university students: The mediating roles of stress and self-control. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 5570. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115570
Zhao, W., Wu, A. M., Feng, C., Yu, K., Wang, Z., & Jiao, K. (2024). Perfectionism and suicidal ideation: the serial mediating roles of appearance-based rejection sensitivity and loneliness. Current Psychology, 43(31), 25494-25503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06230-y
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Body, Mind and Culture
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
